The Hundred Years’ War, fought between England and France from 1337 to 1453, was one of the longest and most complex conflicts in medieval history. Spanning over a century, it was not a single continuous war but rather a series of battles, truces, and shifting alliances that shaped the future of both nations. At its core, the war was a struggle for the French throne, but it also encompassed territorial disputes, dynastic rivalries, and evolving military tactics that transformed medieval warfare forever.
The origins of the conflict lay in a tangled web of feudal claims and competing royal ambitions. The immediate cause was the death of the French king Charles IV in 1328 without a direct male heir. The French nobility rejected the claim of Edward III of England, who was the grandson of Philip IV of France through his mother. Instead, they chose Philip VI, a cousin of Charles IV, as their new king. This decision enraged Edward, who saw it as an illegitimate seizure of a throne that he believed was rightfully his. Tensions escalated over time, with Edward formally declaring himself the rightful King of France in 1337, marking the beginning of hostilities.
The early phase of the war was dominated by English victories, largely due to superior tactics and innovative use of longbowmen. The Battle of Crécy in 1346 showcased the devastating power of the English longbow, as heavily armoured French knights were cut down before they could even reach the enemy lines. This marked a turning point in medieval warfare, demonstrating that disciplined infantry and ranged weapons could overcome traditional cavalry charges. Ten years later, at the Battle of Poitiers in 1356, the English, under Edward the Black Prince, once again defeated the French and even captured their king, John II, dealing a severe blow to France’s morale and stability.
Amidst these military clashes, the war was also shaped by political and social upheavals. The Black Death ravaged Europe during this period, reducing populations and disrupting economies. Both England and France faced internal revolts, with the Peasants’ Revolt in England in 1381 and the Jacquerie uprising in France reflecting the growing discontent of the lower classes burdened by taxes and warfare. The conflict also saw shifting alliances, as various factions within France and England sought to gain advantage. The Burgundians and Armagnacs, two rival French factions, fought for control, further weakening French unity and playing into English hands.
One of the most significant turning points came with the emergence of Henry V of England. In 1415, he launched a renewed invasion of France, culminating in the famous Battle of Agincourt. Once again, the English longbow proved decisive, as Henry’s outnumbered forces decimated the French nobility. This victory was followed by the Treaty of Troyes in 1420, which recognised Henry as the heir to the French throne and disinherited the Dauphin, Charles VII. It seemed as though England was on the verge of completely conquering France.
However, fortune soon turned against the English. Henry V died unexpectedly in 1422, leaving his infant son, Henry VI, as his successor. The French found a new leader in Joan of Arc, a peasant girl who claimed to have received divine visions instructing her to rally France against the English. Her arrival revitalised French forces, leading to a series of victories, most notably the lifting of the siege of Orléans in 1429. She escorted Charles VII to Reims, where he was crowned king, restoring legitimacy to the French monarchy. Though Joan was later captured by the Burgundians, handed over to the English, and executed for heresy in 1431, her impact on the war was undeniable. She became a symbol of French resistance and national identity.
The final decades of the war saw the gradual decline of English fortunes. The Burgundians shifted their allegiance to Charles VII in 1435, strengthening the French position. Military reforms, including the creation of a standing army and the increased use of artillery, gave France a decisive advantage. The English, stretched thin and dealing with internal conflicts, could no longer sustain their hold on French territories. The recapture of Normandy in 1450 and Gascony in 1453 effectively ended English ambitions in France. The final battle at Castillon marked the war’s conclusion, and with it, England lost all its French possessions except for Calais.
The Hundred Years’ War had profound consequences for both nations. For France, it marked the beginning of a strong centralised monarchy, with Charles VII and his successors consolidating royal power and reducing the influence of the nobility. The devastation of the war and the forced reliance on commoners in battle contributed to the emergence of a distinct French national identity. England, meanwhile, suffered not only the loss of its continental territories but also internal strife. The financial strain of the war and the legitimacy crisis following Henry VI’s weak rule led directly to the Wars of the Roses, a bitter civil war that shaped England’s political landscape for decades.
Beyond its immediate political effects, the war also revolutionised medieval warfare. The dominance of heavy cavalry waned in favour of professional armies, artillery, and infantry-based tactics. The use of gunpowder weaponry became more widespread, paving the way for the modern battlefield. The rise of nationalism in both England and France signalled the decline of feudalism, as loyalty to the crown increasingly replaced personal allegiances to feudal lords. The Hundred Years’ War remains one of the most dramatic and influential conflicts in European history. It was a war of shifting fortunes, legendary battles, and iconic figures, from Edward III and Henry V to Joan of Arc and Charles VII. What began as a dynastic dispute evolved into a defining struggle that shaped the destinies of two great nations, forging identities and altering the course of medieval Europe forever.
